How does a research idea turn into a reliable report? In this episode we follow the stages of the scientific research process step by step, get to know the data collection methods most often used in educational research (questionnaires, interviews and observation), and examine the ethical principles researchers must follow.

What will you learn in this episode?

• Explain the stages of the scientific research process in order
• Distinguish between the concepts of assumption, limitation, population, sample, data, findings and interpretation
• Explain why “population and sample” is used in quantitative research and “participants and setting” in qualitative research
• List the kinds of information that can be collected with a questionnaire
• Compare structured, semi-structured and unstructured interviews
• Explain the types of observation and the ethical principles to be followed in scientific research

Summary of this episode

The scientific research process

The scientific research process consists of planning, implementation and reporting stages. The process begins with a need and is completed when the work to meet that need is concluded. The source lists the steps of the process as follows:

• Choosing the research topic: A topic is chosen through reviewing sources, talking with experts and observation. A literature review, that is, going through publications on the topic, helps to see whether the topic is original and to narrow it down.
• Stating the research problem: The purpose of the research is set according to the problem to be solved. The problem can be formulated from previous theories, research findings or personal observations, and its theoretical or practical importance should be discussed. The problem must be researchable, that is, it must be possible to study it by collecting and analyzing data; it must also suit the researcher's skills, time and resources.
• Reviewing the literature: A theoretical framework is built by bringing together theoretical knowledge and the findings of previous research.
• Setting out the assumptions: Assumptions are research-specific statements that cannot be proven with the researcher's resources but are accepted as true. For a statement to serve as an assumption, one must be confident that it is true and it must not greatly affect the outcome of the research.
• Setting out the limitations: These are aspects left outside the scope of the research because of time, cost and resources. The results are valid within these limits.
• Making definitions: To prevent misunderstanding, the researcher defines the key concepts in concrete terms.
• Choosing the method: The type and design of the research, the participants, the data collection tools and the method of analysis are decided.
• Conclusions, discussion and recommendations and reporting: The findings are summarized and compared with similar research, recommendations are made for practice and future research, and the research is shared through a clear report. Reports have a general format, but reports of qualitative and quantitative research differ in some respects.

Basic concepts related to method

The research type is the adoption of a qualitative or quantitative approach, or both together; the research design is the arrangement of the conditions needed to collect and analyze data. In quantitative research, the expression “population and sample” is used because the results are meant to be generalized. The population is all the individuals to whom the results will be generalized; the sample is the group selected to represent the population. In qualitative research, generalization is not the aim, so the expression “participants and setting” is used, and these are described in detail. The raw information collected in research is called data; processed and analyzed data are called findings; and giving meaning to findings is called interpretation. Which data will be collected and how they will be analyzed should be decided while planning the research. Educational research uses data collection methods such as psychological tests (intelligence, aptitude and attitude scales), observation, questionnaires, interviews and document review.

Questionnaire

A questionnaire (sormaca) is a method in which individuals or groups provide information about themselves in writing. It is widely used because it is relatively easy to prepare and makes it possible to reach many people in a short time. Three kinds of information are collected with questionnaires: demographic information such as age, education level and place of birth; attitudes, opinions, expectations and wishes; and reports of habits and behavior such as “How many times a month do you go to the cinema?”

Interview

An interview is a “purposeful conversation” that aims to reveal what people think and why, along with their feelings and attitudes. It can be done face to face, by phone or online. Three types are common in educational research:

• Unstructured interview: Questions are not prepared in advance; only the main topics are set. It is a conversation directed towards a particular purpose; it is the type whose data are hardest to analyze.
• Structured interview: All stages are planned in advance and the plan is not departed from. The direction of the interview is not changed according to the interviewee's behavioral cues. It is suitable for comparing answers and gathering views from many people; it is the easiest type to analyze. Its written form is called a questionnaire. Closed questions such as “Since what age has your child been playing computer games?” are examples of this type.
• Semi-structured interview: Questions are prepared in advance and asked of everyone in the same order, but follow-up questions can be used for clarification when needed. For example, if a parent asks “In what respects?”, the researcher can add a short explanation, but should take care to give the same explanation to every participant who asks the same question. In this respect, it is the most flexible type.

Interviews are also classified by recording method as verbal, written or audio-video recorded, and by the number of people taking part as individual or group interviews.

Observation

Observation is a data collection method that aims to examine human behavior in detail in natural settings. Both complex behaviors, such as the student-teacher relationship, and simple information, such as the number of desks in a classroom, can be collected through observation. Muscular movements (how many times hands are raised in a lesson), verbal behaviors, physiological reactions and nonverbal behaviors can be observed. Observation can be natural or controlled depending on the setting, participant or non-participant depending on the researcher's involvement, and continuous or intermittent depending on its duration. In participant observation, the researcher takes part in the life of the group to understand how its members see the world; this type is used mostly in ethnographic research. In non-participant observation, the researcher stays outside the process; observation with a camera placed in a classroom is an example, but this may raise ethical and legal issues.

Research ethics

Scientific research ethics is the set of rules researchers must follow. The principles highlighted in the source are:

• Participants should be informed in advance, preferably in writing, about the purpose of the research, what is expected of them and any possible risks.
• Participation should be voluntary; no one should be pressured.
• Rewards offered to encourage participation should be honest and not excessive.
• Data should be collected without causing psychological or physical harm to participants.
• Behaviors that participants consider private should not be observed, or audio or video recorded, without permission.
• Participants' identities and the information they provide should be kept confidential.
• Participants have the right to learn the results of the research; submitting the report for participants' approval is called member checking.
• The mutual responsibilities of the researcher and the participants should be made clear and agreed upon.
• Researchers should present their findings with regard to the social and human impact of the results.
• Research should, where possible, be reviewed by an ethics committee.
• Researchers are also responsible for ensuring that the colleagues and support staff they work with follow ethical rules.
• All sources used should be cited properly; presenting someone else's work as one's own is scientific theft (plagiarism).

In short

Scientific research consists of planned steps, from identifying the topic and the problem to writing the report. In educational research, data are most often collected through questionnaires, interviews and observation, and each method has its own strengths and weaknesses. Throughout this process, researchers must adhere to ethical principles such as voluntary participation, informed consent, confidentiality, avoiding harm and citing sources.

Key concepts

• Literature review: Reviewing earlier publications and studies on the research topic.
• Assumption: A statement that cannot be proven with the researcher's resources but is accepted as true in the research.
• Limitation: An aspect left outside the scope of the research because of time, cost and resources.
• Population: All the individuals to whom the research results will be generalized.
• Sample: The group of individuals selected to represent the population.
• Data, findings, interpretation: Raw information; processed and analyzed data; giving meaning to the findings.
• Questionnaire (sormaca): A data collection tool in which individuals provide written information about themselves.
• Semi-structured interview: An interview in which prepared questions are asked flexibly, with additional explanations.
• Participant observation: Observation in which the researcher takes part in the life of the group being studied.
• Member checking: Submitting the research report to participants for approval before it takes its final form.
• Plagiarism (scientific theft): Presenting someone else's work as one's own without citing the source.

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Sources used:
Ersoy, A. (2008). Eğitim biliminde araştırma yöntemleri [Research methods in educational science]. In M. Gültekin (Ed.), Eğitim Bilimine Giriş [Introduction to Educational Science] (Unit 8). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları.

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