From customary-law (töre) education on the steppes of Central Asia to the Seljuk madrasas, and from the Ottoman Enderun to the new schools of the Republic, what changed and what endured? In this episode we examine the historical development of education in Türkiye in four periods, namely the early Turks, the Seljuk State, the Ottoman State and the Republic, with their main educational institutions and turning points.

What will you learn in this episode?

• Explain the main features of education among the early Turks and the role of töre (customary law) in education
• Compare the educational differences among the Huns, the Göktürks and the Uyghurs
• Recognize the educational institutions of the Seljuk period (medrese, küttap, atabeklik, Ahilik)
• Explain the four main educational institutions of the Ottoman period and the schools opened during the reform period
• List the main educational arrangements of the early years of the Republic
• Explain the main developments in education from the multi-party period up to the years when the source was published

Summary of this episode

Education among the early Turks

The first homeland of the Turks was Central Asia, where three great Turkish states were founded in turn: the Huns, the Göktürks and the Uyghurs. The geographical conditions of Central Asia shaped their way of life and therefore their approach to education.

Among the nomadic Huns, the main aim of education was to raise alert, resilient, disciplined and brave individuals to protect the borders. Since animal husbandry, weaving, metalwork and crafts were among the subjects of education, vocational education was valued. Töre, the customary law that regulated social life, encouraged respect for elders, protection of the young, keeping one's word, solidarity and sharing. According to töre, the functions of education included raising children to become strong and good soldiers and to acquire the behaviors accepted by society.

The Göktürks' approach to education was similar to that of the Huns. According to the source, however, the fact that the Göktürks had an advanced alphabet of 38 letters suggests that they had formal education. As the Orkhon Inscriptions show, wisdom, alplik (valor), heroism, independence and the happiness of the people were core values. The Uyghurs stand apart for settling down, changing their religion and being more advanced in literacy; among them, oral knowledge of töre gradually gave way to written knowledge. In short, education among the early Turks aimed to raise the “alp” type of person, both brave and wise.

Education in the Seljuk period

The Turks' acceptance of Islam brought deep changes to their way of life; under the Karakhanids, cities such as Samarkand and Bukhara became cultural centers. Great importance was given to education in the Seljuk period:

• Medrese (madrasa): These were the formal educational institutions founded in this period. According to the source, the first madrasas were opened under Tughril Bey, followed by the Nizamiyya madrasas under Alp Arslan. Alongside religious, literary and philosophical subjects, their programs also included the positive sciences. Their costs were covered by foundations (vakıf), and students studied as boarders on scholarships.
• Küttap: Primary education institutions, usually attached to mosques, where basic knowledge such as reading, writing and arithmetic was taught.
• Atabeklik: Experienced tutors assigned to princes and guiding them in every matter were called atabeks; it was a high-status position.
• Ahilik: “Ahi” means brother. Ahilik was a guild organization of a vocational and moral nature in which tradesmen and craftsmen were trained through the stages of apprentice, journeyman and master. Becoming a master required passing an examination; vocational training was given in the workplace, and moral education in the organization's meeting places.

Education in the Ottoman period

As with the Seljuks, education in the Ottoman State was carried out as a service separate from state affairs and tied to foundations. The source mentions four main institutions:

• Sıbyan mektepleri (primary schools): Also called neighborhood schools, these were non-compulsory primary schools. Girls and boys were taught basic reading, writing and arithmetic, and individual progress rather than a class system was the rule.
• Medreseler (madrasas): Widespread institutions of learning divided into lower, middle and higher levels. According to the source, the removal of the positive sciences from their programs over time and their resistance to reform weakened the madrasas, which led to the opening of new schools called “mektep” that included the positive sciences.
• Enderun Mektebi: The school founded within the palace in the time of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror to train administrators and statesmen to serve in the palace, the army and the government. It produced many statesmen, poets and architects.
• Acemioğlan kışlaları: Institutions where children gathered through the devşirme system were trained as Janissaries; those who passed a selection examination were admitted to the Enderun.

Europe's rapid progress in science and technology, and especially difficulties in the military field, brought the need for reform to the agenda. The first reform steps were taken in the army: schools such as the Hendesehane (artillery school), Mühendishane-i Bahr-i Hümayun (naval school), Tıphane-i Amire (military medical school) and Mekteb-i Harbiye (military academy) were opened. Then, in the civilian field, secondary institutions such as the rüşdiye, idadi and sultani were founded. Under Mahmud II, primary education was made compulsory; the Maarif-i Umumiye Nezareti (Ministry of Public Education), the higher teachers' college Darülmuallimin-i Âli, and the Darülfünun were opened in this process. In the Constitutional period, new arrangements were made with the Provisional Law on Primary Education of 1913. The source notes that these initiatives could not reach the desired level because of political and social turmoil. According to the source, the educational legacy passed on to the Republic consisted of 4,194 primary schools, 69 middle schools, 13 high schools, 20 teacher training schools, 17 vocational schools and 1 university (the Darülfünun).

Education in the Republican period

With the founding of the Republic, education became the main tool for restructuring society. While the War of Independence was still going on, the programs of schools were discussed at the Maarif Kongresi (Education Congress) held in 1921. In the early years, a national, scientific, modern and secular approach to education was adopted. With the Law on the Unification of Education (Tevhid-i Tedrisat), passed on 3 March 1924, all educational institutions were brought under one roof and the madrasas were closed. After the adoption of the new Turkish alphabet in 1928, literacy was spread rapidly through the Millet Mektepleri (Nation Schools) and the Halkevleri (People's Houses). In this period, the views of foreign experts such as John Dewey were also drawn on. From 1939, the National Education Councils replaced the education congresses held in 1923, 1924 and 1926 under the name “Heyeti İlmiye”. Because most of the population lived in villages, the Köy Enstitüleri (Village Institutes) were opened in 1939; the aim was to start development from the village and raise literacy.

With the transition to multi-party life in 1946, reviewing the democratic foundations of education and training manpower for national development came to the fore. From 1963 onwards, education was given an important place in the five-year development plans. The first plan found that no link had been established between education and the economic and social structure, and that there was no cooperation between educational institutions and the business world; it aimed to raise qualified people, link education to workforce needs and give priority to institutions that train teachers. The source notes that although the councils and the plans made consistent recommendations, the proposed structural changes could not always be carried out. With Basic Law of National Education No. 1739, passed in 1973, the basic principles and structure of education (preschool, basic education, secondary education, higher education) were defined. The Tenth Council, held in 1981, proposed adding kindergarten classes to primary schools to expand preschool education. With Higher Education Law No. 2547, passed in the same year, teacher training institutions were attached to universities; in 1997, Law No. 4306 introduced eight years of uninterrupted compulsory primary education. From 1998 onwards, the programs of education faculties were restructured and the weight of practical teaching courses was increased. At the time the source was published, primary education programs had been renewed with a constructivist approach in 2004, and the seventeenth council had been held in 2006.

In short

Education in Türkiye followed a path of development from the ideal of the alp person guided by töre among the early Turks, through the foundation-based madrasas, mekteps and palace schools of the Seljuks and Ottomans, to the Western-style schools of the reform period. With the Republic, an effort began to build a national, scientific, modern and secular education system, and this effort was carried forward through laws, councils and development plans.

Key concepts

• Töre: Among the early Turks, the body of rules that regulated state administration and social life and also guided education.
• Alp type of person: The brave and wise person that education among the early Turks aimed to raise.
• Medrese (madrasa): A formal educational institution offering education in stages, founded in the Seljuk period and continued under the Ottomans.
• Küttap: The Seljuk primary education institution where basic knowledge was taught.
• Ahilik: A tradesmen's organization providing vocational and moral education through the stages of apprentice, journeyman and master.
• Sıbyan mektebi: The Ottoman primary school, also called the neighborhood school.
• Enderun Mektebi: The Ottoman palace school that trained administrators and statesmen.
• Rüşdiye, idadi, sultani: Secondary education institutions opened during the Ottoman reform period.
• Tevhid-i Tedrisat: The 1924 Law on the Unification of Education, which brought educational institutions under one roof.
• Köy Enstitüleri (Village Institutes): Schools opened in 1939 to start development from the village and raise literacy.
• National Education Council (Milli Eğitim Şûrası): An advisory meeting convened from 1939 onwards to produce recommendations on education.

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Sources used:
Gültekin, M. (2008). Eğitimin tarihsel temelleri [Historical foundations of education]. In M. Gültekin (Ed.), Eğitim Bilimine Giriş [Introduction to Educational Science] (Unit 7). Eskişehir: Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları.

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